Sacred and Secular Voices: Men and Women of Letters in Theological and Classical Perspective

The Holy Bible, recognized within the Christian tradition as inspired by the Spirit, has long served as a principal authority in both church and academy. Its canon, recognized across centuries, became foundational for study and was frequently cited as sufficient for “all things that pertain to life and godliness” (2 Pet. 1:3). Yet one often overlooked aspect merits attention: the role of the inspired writers themselves and the broader tradition to which they belong. Shaped by learning, language, and culture, these writers were both bearers of divine revelation and exemplars of engagement with sacred and secular letters. This “letters tradition,” when viewed theologically, embraces not only sacred men and women of letters but also their secular counterparts, forming a broader intellectual inheritance in which theological reflection and cultural learning are interwoven. This essay[1] considers how sacred and secular men and women of letters from antiquity through the modern era have contributed to the pursuit of truth, arguing that scriptural revelation and learned authorship are inextricably intertwined (see Tables 1 and 2).

Understanding the “Man of Letters"

The term "man of letters" has historical weight. It does not arise from the technical language of biblical studies. Instead, the term belongs to the classical and humanistic traditions. There, it described those deeply engaged with the written word through disciplined study. Across history, this vocation has been embodied in a grand procession of voices—prophets and apostles, philosophers and theologians, poets and critics—whose writings continue to enrich our understanding and extend the breadth and depth of our own intellectual life.

The term "man of letters" is applied here to the sacred writers, scholars such as Ezra, Paul, and later figures like Augustine, Aquinas, or Barth. Within the biblical text, Paul arguably stands out as the most explicitly educated, having been trained under Gamaliel, skilled in Jewish law, and conversant with Greco-Roman rhetoric. Though others, such as Moses, Daniel, and Luke, also reflect significant learning within their own cultural settings. Their literary, philosophical, and theological training enabled them to preserve, interpret, and transmit divine revelation. These were not merely literate men but learned ones, shaped by disciplines of law, rhetoric, philosophy, and theological reflection.

In secular use, the term extends to classical figures such as Cicero, Plato, and Valla, and continues through modern voices like Kant, Nietzsche, Dawkins, or Hitchens, who stewarded lasting works in philosophy, rhetoric, and literature that shaped the Western intellectual tradition.

While modern usage may associate "man of letters" with literary critics or belletrists (writers of polished, often non-specialist literary essays or belles lettres), the term here speaks of a deeper vocation; an ethos, even an obligation, shaped by the disciplines of reading, writing, and reflection.

Secular scholars advanced philosophy, rhetoric, and cultural critique independently of theological frameworks. Their works, from classical antiquity to the modern era, influenced intellectual movements that complemented, challenged, or redirected the development of religious thought (see Table 2).

Women of Letters in the Sacred and Secular Traditions

Although the terminology of “men of letters” reflects the predominance of male authorship in antiquity, women, too, belong to this grand procession of voices. From Deborah and Huldah, prophets of Israel, to Macrina and Hildegard, their writings and witness display intellectual depth, theological reflection, and spiritual discernment. Others, such as Mary of Egypt, Edith Stein, Dorothy Sayers, and Adrienne von Speyr, carried forward ascetic, mystical, and theological traditions, while figures like Flannery O’Connor and Prudence Allen extend the legacy into modernity. Though often less visible in traditional canons, these women broaden the sacred literary tradition and call for fuller scholarly attention (see Table 3).

Women have participated in shaping the sacred and secular intellectual traditions of the West from antiquity to the modern era. In the secular letters tradition, their contributions in poetry, philosophy, and social critique reflect the same disciplined engagement with language, learning, and cultural formation as their sacred counterparts (see Table 4).

Together, these tables illustrate the breadth of the letters tradition, a procession of sacred and secular voices, male and female, whose intellectual labors enriched both theology and the wider currents of Western thought.

Canon Formation and Inspiration

The canon of Scripture did not emerge fully formed. It was progressively recognized through a sustained process of theological reflection, liturgical usage, and communal discernment. In my view, the Church, in a process shaped by theological discernment, providential interpretation, and historical circumstance, identified and affirmed these writings as divinely inspired.

This historical process does not diminish the inspiration of Scripture shaped by sacred learning. The authority of Scripture derives not from arbitrary selection. The interplay between divine agency, human agents, and communal recognition establishes these texts as normative for faith and practice.

Scripture in Translation and Authorship: Cultural Filters and Theological Fidelity

Human language is the symbolic reflection of cultural and intellectual perspectives. Within Christian belief, divine revelation is expressed in human language, making translation not only practical but theologically significant; it is a central means by which sacred truth is transmitted across diverse contexts. As such, translation from one human language to another is not merely a practical necessity, but a theologically significant means by which sacred truth is transmitted across diverse contexts. Translation is thus not a distortion of truth, but central to the providential unfolding of revelation, ensuring that it becomes accessible across time and place.

The Scriptures were written, compiled, and translated by individuals whose lives were deeply embedded within linguistic, historical, cultural, and political contexts. Sacred authors did not write in abstraction. Their authorial work unfolded amidst the crucible of oral tradition, priestly transmission, imperial rule, and eventually multilingual translation.

Nowhere is this more evident than in the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures. Produced in a Hellenistic context and rendered in the lingua franca of the eastern Mediterranean, the Septuagint preserved Israel’s sacred writings while making them accessible to a broader, non-Hebrew audience. The Septuagint was read by Greek-speaking Jews and became the primary scriptural source for early Christians, including Paul and the Gospel writers.

Rather than diminishing authority, translation demonstrates Scripture’s adaptability across linguistic and cultural contexts. Its existence affirms the very premise of this essay: that sacred revelation and secular learning are not opposed, but in God's providence can serve complementary roles. In translation, as in authorship, the transmission of the Word unfolded through human authors shaped by their historical and cultural contexts.

Day by day, Ezra read from the Law (Neh. 8:18). The Jews searched these Scriptures for eternal life (John 5:39). Paul asserted that “all Scripture is God-breathed” (2 Tim. 3:16) and reminded Timothy he had known Scripture since childhood, urging him to read it publicly (2 Tim. 3:15; 1 Tim. 4:13). At that time, ‘Scripture’ referred to Israel’s sacred writings (the Law, Prophets, and Writings), commonly read in the Greek Septuagint. The “Book of the Law” refers to the Torah (the first five books of Moses, Genesis through Deuteronomy). In some biblical contexts, especially in Kings, it refers specifically to Deuteronomy, which summarizes and renews the covenant between God and Israel.[2]

Jesus and Paul

Jesus and Paul, though separated by the resurrection, both studied and interpreted the Hebrew Scriptures. Each engaged the Law and the Prophets with authority, affirming covenant truth while challenging traditionalism within their Jewish context. Their distinct yet complementary approaches to Scripture are outlined in Figure 1.

Paul at the Areopagus

Paul spoke to those worshipping at the Areopagus when he saw an altar to an 'unknown god.' He taught monotheism using ideas familiar to polytheists. In Acts 17:28, Paul quotes Greek poets: “in him we live and move and have our being” (often attributed to Epimenides) and “for we are indeed his offspring” (Aratus, Phaenomena 5; cf. Cleanthes). He appropriates these familiar lines to point to the true God. Paul’s theology demonstrates a knowledge of both Jewish faith and Greek philosophy. He engaged with Hellenistic culture but stayed rooted in Hebrew Scriptures. Paul taught both Jews and Greeks at Iconium, where many believed in Christ (Acts 14:1). He was a Jew by culture and a Roman citizen. As an author, he wrote in Greek. Paul was indeed a man of letters.

"Where is the Scribe?" — Paul's Rhetorical Challenge in 1 Corinthians

In 1 Corinthians 1:20, Paul asks three rhetorical questions: “Where is the wise (σοφός, sophos)? Where is the scribe (γραμματεύς, grammateus)? Where is the debater of this age (συζητητής τοῦ αἰῶνος τούτου, syzētētēs tou aiōnos toutou)?” Paul’s use of these terms shows that his defense of God’s wisdom was framed in categories familiar to his world. The term γραμματεύς is usually translated “scribe,” referring to Jewish legal experts who handled, preserved, copied, and interpreted the Scriptures. “Man of letters” captures the broader sense of literacy and learning, but “scribe” is the most accurate in this context. These scribes played a crucial role in preserving and interpreting the Hebrew Scriptures within the community. Paul himself was a trained man of letters: deeply versed in Israel’s Scriptures, conversant with Greco-Roman rhetoric, and aware of Roman legal procedures (as seen in Acts), all in service of the gospel.

Dissent Remains

Not every student of Scripture values engaging non-biblical works for truth. Clement of Alexandria writes that “before the Lord’s coming, philosophy was necessary for the Greeks for righteousness; and now it is conducive to piety,” arguing that philosophy served the Greeks as the Law did the Hebrews, a tutor leading to Christ (cf. Stromata 1.5; 1.20; see also Gamble, 169).

Contemporary Relevance and Scholarly Vocation

The thoughts explored throughout this essay are not merely of antiquarian interest; they speak to the task of biblical literacy and Christian education today. Contemporary scholars, elders, deacons, members, and academic students stand within a vocation shaped by both sacred tradition and the wider currents of intellectual history. To read Scripture faithfully is not simply to preserve texts, but to steward wisdom linguistically, theologically, and culturally. As with their ancient counterparts, those who engage Scripture must navigate the interplay of sacred and secular sources whilst being attentive to divine revelation and the human context through which it is mediated. To engage Scripture faithfully is, in a sense, to stand within the letters tradition itself, joining prophets, apostles, philosophers, poets, and theologians in the ongoing task of reading, interpreting, and transmitting wisdom for the church and the world. This essay has suggested that scholarly engagement with sacred texts has historically complemented faith, rather than standing opposed to it.

Notes

[1] This essay was originally written for HU 7311: Introduction to Humane Letters, taught by Dr. Robert Woods, and submitted on September 13, 2014, under the title Scribes of Truth: Sacred and Secular Men of Letters. It has since been revised and expanded under the current title: Sacred and Secular Men of Letters: A Theological and Classical Perspective.

[2] The “Book of the Law” usually refers to the Torah, the first five books of Moses: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. In some contexts (e.g., 2 Kings 22), it may refer more specifically to Deuteronomy.

[3] Paul was educated under the Rabbi Gamaliel (Acts 22:3) and displays skill in Greek rhetoric throughout his letters, showing his training as both a Jew and a man conversant with Hellenistic culture.

[4] For additional historical and cultural background, see James F. Strange, Jesus and the Forgotten City: New Light on Sepphoris and the Urban World of Jesus (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001).

Bibliography

Clement of Alexandria. Stromateis (Stromata), Books 1–3. Translated by John Ferguson. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1991.

Gamble, Richard M. The Great Tradition: Classic Readings on What It Means to Be an Educated Human Being. Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2007.

Strange, James F. Jesus and the Forgotten City: New Light on Sepphoris and the Urban World of Jesus. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001.

Valla, Lorenzo. Correspondence. Edited and translated by Brian P. Copenhaver. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014.